STRESS HORMONE LEVELS AMONG CHILDREN BEREAVED BY TERROR ATTACK
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.69656/pjp.v19i3.1532Keywords:
Terrorism, Bereavement, Salivary Cortisol levels, DepressionAbstract
Background: Terrorism is characterized by the use of violence against civilians, with the expressed desire of causing terror or panic in the population. Since the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly NWFP) province of Pakistan has suffered the most from unrest and terrorist activities. Terror related bereavement is more stressful and difficult to recover compared from that of bereavement from natural death. Methods: This retrospective study was carried out in the Department of Physiology, IBMS, Khyber Medical University, Peshawar, Pakistan. Salivary Cortisol Levels were estimated in Non-Bereaved and Bereaved Groups of children. Results: Children in the Bereaved Group showed a statistically significant (p=0.005) higher levels of salivary cortisol in the morning sample (Log Cortisol M=14.43) as compared with the children in the Non-Bereaved Group (Log Cortisol M=6.44). Children in the Bereaved Group showed a statistically non-significant (p=0.164) decrease in the levels of salivary cortisol in the post-dexamethasone sample (Log Cortisol M=8.85) as compared with the children in the Non-Bereaved Group (Log Cortisol M=4.25). Conclusion: Terror bereavement causes long-term activation of the Hypothalmo-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis, elevating the cortisol levels even 3–4 years after the traumatic bereavement. Chronic elevation of cortisol results in the manifestations of depression related signs and symptoms in bereaved children.
Pak J Physiol 2023;19(3):11–4
Downloads
References
Teaching guide on international terrorism: definitions, causes, and responses. Retrieved from: https://www.usip.org/publications/ 2001/11/files/resources/terrorism.pdf. [Accessed: 2 Dec 2022]
Global Terrorism Index 2017. Retrieved from: https://reliefweb.int/ report/world/global-terrorism-index-2017. [Accessed: 26 Jan 2023]
Support to Pakistan’s Action to Counter-Terrorism with a Special Reference to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (PACT KP) project. URL: https://www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/pact-kp_fiche.pdf. [Accessed: 6 Dec 2022]
Kaltman S, Bonanno GA. Trauma and bereavement: Examining the impact of sudden and violent deaths. J Anxiety Disord 2003;17(2):131–47.
Nakajima S, Ito M, Shirai A, Konishi T. Complicated grief in those bereaved by violent death: the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder on complicated grief. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2012;14(2):210–4.
Harris T, Brown GW, Bifulco A. Loss of parent in childhood and adult psychiatric disorder: the role of lack of adequate parental care. Psychol Med 1986;16(3):641–59.
Henley DE, Kaye JM, Lightman SL. The endocrine response to stress. In: Oxford Textbook of Endocrinology and Diabetes [Internet]. Oxford University Press; 2011. pp.287–94. Retrieved from: https://academic.oup.com/book/25144/chapter/189453762. [Accessed: 12 Dec 2022]
Brent DA, Perper JA, Moritz G, Liotus L, Richardson D, Canobbio R, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in peers of adolescent suicide victims: Predisposing factors and phenomenology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiat 1995;34(2):209–15.
Dietz LJ, Stoyak S, Melhem N, Porta G, Matthews KA, Payne MW, et al. Cortisol response to social stress in parentally bereaved youth. Biol Psychiat 2013;73(4):379–87.
Ritchie H, Hasell J, Mathieu E, Appel C, Roser M. Terrorism. URL: https://ourworldindata.org/terrorism. [Accessed: 1 Feb 2023]
Annual security report-2022. Available at: https://crss.pk/annual-security-report-2022/. [Accessed: 30 Jan 2023]
NSC to decide on ‘decisive’ operation against terrorists. URL: https://tribune.com.pk/story/2398632/nsc-to-decide-on-decisive-operation-against-terrorists-asif. [Accessed: 1 Feb 2023]
Traumatic bereavement. A guide for schools and colleges to help children and young people who are struggling. UK Trauma Council. URL: https://uktraumacouncil.org/wpcontent/uploads/2021/02/ 210226_UKTC_TB_animationguide_draft_v2.pdf. [Accessed: 1 Feb 2023]
Pfeffer CR, Altemus M, Heo M, Jiang H. Salivary cortisol and psychopathology in children bereaved by the September 11, 2001 terror attacks. Biol Psychiat 2007;61(8):957–65.
Luecken LJ, Appelhans BM. Early parental loss and salivary cortisol in young adulthood: the moderating role of family environment. Dev Psychopathol 2006;18(1):295–308.
Hart J, Gunnar M, Cicchetti D. Altered neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children related to symptoms of depression. Dev Psychopathol 1996;8(1):201–14.
Jessop DS, Turner-Cobb JM. Measurement and meaning of salivary cortisol: A focus on health and disease in children: Rev Stress 2008;11(1):1–14.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
The author(s) retain the Copyrights and allow their publication in Pakistan Journal of Physiology, Pak J Physiol, PJP to be FREE for research and academic purposes. It can be downloaded and stored, printed, presented, projected, cited and quoted with full reference of, and acknowledgement to the author(s) and the PJP. The contents are published with an international CC-BY-ND-4.0 License.
